In 451, the Alexandrian branch of the Church declared theological and political independence from Constantinople, forming the Coptic Orthodox Church. The split derived from a dispute over the interpretation of the Trinity. While the Ecumenical Council at Chalcedon defended the definition of Christ’s nature as diphys-ite, with the human and the divine aspects clearly differentiated, the doctrine of the new Coptic Church centered around monophysitism, which holds that Christ’s nature is of such unity that the human and divine elements are fused and indivisible.

The Roman Emperor Justinian sought to restore unity by exiling Coptic clergy to isolated desert monasteries. Rebellious Copts thus welcomed the Persians as liberators when they captured Egypt in 619. Since the 7th century, the Egyptian Christian community has lived as a religious minority in an Islamic state. Relations between the Copts and the Muslims have vacillated throughout history, as the Islamic government has used Qur’anic verses and extracts from the Hadith to Justify either lenient or oppressive treatment. Recently, the Copts have felt besieged by Egypt’s increasingly vocal Islamists, and acts of sectarian violence have been reported regularly.