Mosque Architecture Terminology : Introduction To The Region

Several architectural feats deserve special attention in mosques. There are two basic designs. The Arab style, based on Muhammad’s house, has a pillared cloister around a courtyard (hypostyle), while the Persian style has a vaulted arch on each side. Most prominent are the towering minarets from which the chants of the muezzin summon the faithful to prayer five times daily. Mosques are generally rectangular with cool arcaded porches (riwaqs) surrounding a central open courtyard (sahn). These usually contain a central covered fountain (sabil) for ablutions before prayer. The focus of each mosque is the qibla wall which holds the prayer niche (mihrab) and indicates the direction of Mecca.

Particularly in Mamluk mosques, the mihrab and qibla are elaborately decorated with marble inlay and Kufic inscriptions. Because Muslims consider representations of nature (animals, people) to be blasphemous imitations of God, abstract artwork dominates the mosques’ decorations. In the Fatamid period, interlaced foliate patterns in carved stucco and plaster were popular ornamentation. Geometric patterns and elegant calligraphy appeared later in Mamluk times. Particularly beautiful examples of work from this period are found on the pulpits (minbars) that usually stand beside the mihrab. Under the seat of the minbar. on the side, there is often an archway, allowing you to cross to the other side as you make a wish, called a “wishing door.”

Architecture : Introduction To The Region

The Middle East’s architectural remains testify to its history of conquest. As ruling dynasties tumbled after each other, new architectural modes syncretized with local forms. The result is a patchwork of Roman ruins, Crusader fortifications, and native styles overlaid with Muslim monuments.

The Egyptians are justly known as the builders of antiquity. Massive blocks of limestone, granite, and sandstone were employed for tombs and temples, and the Nile allowed easy transport of materials. Today’s remains are mainly temples and tombs, since most other buildings, including royal palaces, were built from biodegradable materials which have dissolved back into mud. The Egyptians believed that their life in the afterworld depended upon the preservation of their earthly bodies. The eariiest tombs were pits covered with bricks or Nile mud to prevent sand from scattering in the wind. Dignitaries of the Old Kingdom were buried in mastabas, rectangular structures surmounting underground burial chambers and abutted by a small court for mourners. The mastabas were later enlarged and surrounded with outer casings to produce step pyramids, forerunners of the true pyramids.

The Samaritans : Introduction To The Region

This group has a significance disproportionate to the current tiny community (roughly 500, divided between Nablus and Holon, a suburb of Tel Aviv). Originally simply the residents of Samaria, Samaritans consider themselves the original Israelis, from whom the Jews split. More commonly, the religion is seen as an offshoot of Judaism marked by literal interpretation of the Samaritan version of the Old Testament and the absence of later Jewish interpretation (i.e. the Mishmash Talmud) from its canon.

A gradual, centuries-long separation between the two religions culminated with the destruction of the Samaritan temple on Mt. Gerizim hvSeleucid king John Hyrcanus in 128 BC. Centuries of persecution by the various rulers of Palestine shrunk the community further, including the deaths of thousands in a 529AD uprising against Roman Rule. While Orthodox jews do not recognize Samaritans as interpreters of a shared heritage, the israeli government applies the Law of return (granting settlement rights to all jews) to them.

The Baha’i : Introduction To The Region

This movement began in Teheran in 1817 with the birth of Mirza Hussein All At the age of 46, this son of Persian nobility renamed himself Baha’u'l-lah, which means -’Glory of God,” and began preaching non-violence and the unity of all religions. Baha’u'llah’s arrival had been foretold in 1844 by the Persian Siyyid AH Muhammad (also known as Al-Bab, or “Gateway to God"), the first prophet of the Baha’i religion, who had heralded the coming of a new religious teacher and divine messenger. Baha’u'llah was imprisoned and then exiled to Palestine, where he continued his teachings in the city of Akko. Baha’u'Uah is buried near Akko, and Al-Bab is buried in Haifa, which is currently home to a large Baha’i population.

Baha’u'llah’s teachings fill over 100 volumes. In keeping with his message, the religion incorporates elements of major Western and Eastern religions. Baha’i believe in a Supreme Being, accepting Jesus, Buddha, Muhammad, and Baha’u'llah as divine prophets. Baha’i Scripture includes the Bible, the Quran, and the Bhaga-vad-Gita. A central doctrine of the faith regards the Baha’i vision of the future. As opposed to both Western and Eastern religions that warn of a final Judgement Day or an end of the world, Baha’u'llah prophesied a “flowering of humanity,” an era of peace and enlightenment to come. Before this new age can arrive, however, the world must undergo dreadful events to give civilization the impetus to reform itself. The Baha’i espouse racial unity, sexual equality, global disarmament, and the creation of a world community. The rapidly-growing Baha’i faith currently boasts about five million adherents, with 1.5 million converts world-wide in the last six years.

Other Sects : Introduction To The Region

The Druze The faith of the Druze, a staunchly independent sect of Shi’i Muslims,centers around a hierarchy of individuals who are the sole custodians of a religious doctrine hidden from the rest of the world. Many Druze consider themselves a separate ethnicity as well as a religious group, while others consider themselves Arab. The Druze believe that the word of God is revealed only to a divinely chosen few, and these blessed few must be followed to the ends of the earth. Wherever the Druze settle, however, they generally remain loyal to their host country. Israel’s 85,000 Druze are among its best soldiers, while 500,000 Syrian and 300,000 Lebanese Druze serve with equal fervor in the armies of Israel’s enemies.

The religion was founded in 1017 by an Egyptian chieftain named Ad-Darazi who drew upon various beliefs in the Muslim world at the time, especially Shi’ism. The Druze believe that God was incarnated in human forms, the final incarnation being Al-Hakim. The Druze have suffered a history of persecution and repression for their beliefs, which may partially explain the group’s refusal to discuss its religion. The Druze prospered in the late 1600s, and under Emir Fakhir ad-Din, the Druze kingdom extended from Lebanon to Gaza to the Golan Heights. Sixteen villages were built from the Mediterranean Sea to the Jezreel Valley to guard the two major roads on which goods and armies were transported. In 1830, a Druze revolt against the Egyptian pasha was crushed, along with all but two of the 14 Druze villages in the Carmel. In the 1860s, Ottoman rulers encouraged the Druze to return to the Carmel.
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The Coptic Church : Introduction To The Region

The Coptic Church “Copt” derives from the Greek word for Egyptian, Aiguptious, shortened in Egyptian pronunciation to qibt, the Arabic word for Copt. Usually, a tattoo of either a domed cathedral or a tiny cross on one’s wrist indicates this religious affiliation. Of 58 million Egyptians, 4-5 million are Copts, of whom a majority live in Cairo. Today, portions of the liturgy are still conducted in Coptic, though most of the service is in Arabic The Copts recognize a separate pope from John Paul tl-their spiritual authority resides in Cairo and serves both Copts and Greek Orthodox followers.

According to Coptic tradition, St. Mark introduced Christianity to Egypt in 62 AD. Although mass conversions transformed Alexandria into a Christian spiritual center, Roman persecutions increased accordingly. A bloody height was reached under Diocletian, who murdered so many Christians that the Copts date their Martyr’s Calendar from 284 AD, the beginning of his reign.

History of Christianity : Introduction To The Region

Three days after Jesus’ crucifixion, on what is now Easter, three women returned to his tomb to anoint his body and discovered the tomb empty. An angel announced that Jesus had been resurrected. Jesus subsequently appeared to the Disciples and performed miracles. Later, on Pentecost, the Disciples were given “tongues of fire,” and were directed to spread the Gospel (Greek for “good news"). At first, Christianity was a sect of Judaism, accepting the Hebrew Bible. Gradually, it diverged further and further, as it proclaimed that Jesus was the Christ (a translation of Messiah) and began to accept uncircumcised members into the faith. The Book of Acts documents these early Christians, and the Letters of Paul, which comprise most of the rest of the New Testament, gave advice to the early Christian communities.

In 325 AD, the Roman Emperor Constantine ended the persecution and martyrdom of Christians, and made Christianity the official religion of the ailing Empire. He convened the Council of Nicea, which came up with an explicit creed. The Church Fathers declared that Jesus Christ was of the same essence as the Father, and that there were three equal parts to God. This caicial doctrine of the trinity maintains that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are distinct persons yet all one God.

Christianity : Introduction To The Region

Christianity began in Palestine with the followers of one man: Jesus. The Jesus of history and critical interpretation of the Gospels differs from the Jesus Christ of faith and literal interpretation. The most significant sources on the life of Jesus are the Gospels. Scholars agree that the “synoptic gospels” of Mark, Matthew, and Luke were written in that order sometime after 70 AD, drawing on a “saying source” which recorded the words of Jesus; they were followed by the Gospel of John (after 100 AD, but having older roots). John deviates from the synoptic gospels, and the three also represent often-conflicting traditions. The sources provide a history informed by belief in Jesus Christ, rather than a purely objective history.

Various datings of historical events put the birth of Jesus, the man regarded by millions as their savior, between 4 BC and 6 AD. In Matthew, Bethlehem is the birthplace of Jesus, and Mary andjoseph move to Nazareth to protect him; in Luke, Jesus’ parents are only temporarily in Bethlehem; and in Mark and John, the birth is not even mentioned. The Bible states Jesus was conceived and brought forth by Mary, a virgin, making him a product of God’s creative power and free from humanity’s original sin. Catholics believe additionally in the Immaculate Conception, which holds that Mary conceived without sin.
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Jewish LIfe : Introduction To The Region

Although Judaism Stresses faith in god, it places greater emphasis on observing god’s commandments. there are 613 mitzvot (Commandments) in the torah, including for ritual observances and instructions concerning moral behavior Halakha refers to the set of laws and established customs that dicate how one is to lead one’s life; by remaning consistent with the balaka, traditional jewsnity, and demonstrate their devotion to God.

Observant Jews pray three times daily: in the morning (the shaharit service), in the afternoon (the minha service), and in the evening (the ma’ariv service). Ritual items include tefillin, or phylacteries; the taSit, or prayer shawl, with its tzitzit (fringes); and kipot (skullcaps), which cover the head as a sign of reverence for God. The laws of kashrtit dictate which foods are kosher and which are not.

Judaism : Introduction To The Region

“In the beginning,” the Bible relates, “God created the heavens and the earth.” Nineteen generations and a flood later, Judaism began with a man called Avram. According to Genesis 17, God appeared to Avram when he was 99 years old, telling him “thou shall be the father of a multitude of nations” and dubbing him Avraham (Abraham), from Ab, “father,” and raham, Arabic for “multitude.” The covenant between God and Avraham was sealed with Avraham’s circumcision, and the covenant between God and the Jewish people is symbolically reaffirmed with the ritual circumcision (brit mila) of Jewish males when they are eight days old.

Avraham’s descendants eventually migrated to Egypt to escape famine, but were bound into servitude. After the exodus from Egypt, the Hebrews spent 40 years wandering in the desert, during which time God gave the Torah to Moshe (Moses) at Mt. Sinai. In approximately 1200 BC, the Hebrews settled in the land of Canaan.

Pillars of Islam : Introduction To The Region

Allahu akhbar. La ilaha WAllah Muhammadun rasul Allah. God is great. There is no god but God. And Muhammad is His prophet. This beginning of the cail to worship (the adhari) punctuates daily life in Muslim areas, sounding five times each day from the mosques. The first line glorifies God, using the word for God in Arabic, Allah. Praise of God and the Prophet is a pious and meritorious action. The next lines of the call form the shahadah, the testimony of faith, and the first of the five pillars of Islam. It reflects the unity of God (tawhid), which is Islam’s strongest belief, and the special place of Muhammad as God’s final Messenger.

The second pillar is prayer (salaf), recited five times per day in imitation of the practice of Muhammad. Prayers, preceded by ablutions, begin with a declaration of intent and consist of a set cycle of prostrations. No designated person is necessary to lead prayers-they are often done wherever the Muslim happens to be at the time of prayer. On Fridays, congregational prayer is encouraged; this is the only distinguishing feature of the Muslim “sabbath.” The third pillar is charity (zakat, or purification). Giving to worthy causes individually may substitute, but zakat is technically an assessed tax on property given to a carefully regulated communal fund.

Islam : Introduction To The Region

Bismillab ar-Rahtnani ar-Rahim. In the Name of God, the merciful and the compassionate. The Arabic word islam means in its general sense ‘"submission,” and Islam the religion is the faithful submission to God’s will.
Islam has its roots in revelations received from 610 to 622 AD by Muhammad, who was informed by the Angel Gabriel of his prophetic calling. These revelations form the core of Islam, the Qur’an (recitation). Muslims believe the Arabic text to be perfect, immutable, and untranslatable-the words of God embodied in human language. Consequently, the Qur’an appears throughout the Muslim world-the majority of which is non-Arabic speaking-in Arabic. Muhammad is seen as the “seal of the prophets,” the last of a chain of God’s messengers which included Jewish and Christian figures such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, and the Qur’an incorporates many of the biblical traditions associated with these prophets.

Muhammad slowly gathered followers to his evolving faith. Staunchly monotheistic, Islam was met with ample opposition in polytheist Arabia, leading to persecution in Muhammad’s native city of Mecca in Arabia. In 622, he and his followers fled to the nearby city of Medina, where he was welcomed as mediator of a long-standing blood feud. This Hijrah (flight, or emigration) marks the beginning of the Muslim community and of the Muslim calendar. For the next eight years, Muhammad and his community at first defended themselves against raids and later battled the Meccans and neighboring nomadic tribes, until in 630 Mecca surrendered to the Muslims, making Muhammad the most powerful man in Arabia. After the surrender, numerous Meccans converted to the new faith voluntarily.
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Religion in Ancient Egypt : Introduction To The Region

The people of predynastic Egypt were ruled by a bewildering array of local gods representing the cosmos, the natural elements, animals, and the life-cycle. As Egypt was united, these local gods were combined and unified into one syncretic pantheon. The importance of gods often waxed and waned with the fortunes of their home provinces. The basic framework of religious belief, however, remained stable through the three millennia of pharaonic rule.

The central myth of Egyptian religion was the Osiris cycle. Seth murdered his brother Osiris, a king from time immemorial, and scattered the pieces of his body throughout Egypt. Subsequently > Osiris’s wife and sister Isis conceived and gave birth to Horus, who became Osiris’s son and heir. Young Horus avenged Osiris and took back the crown from his usurping uncle. The pharaohs saw Horus as the ideal of the rightful and strong ruler, and identified themselves with Horus while on earth. Upon death they were identified with Osiris, now the king of the dead. The phanioh was thus literally a god and worshiped as such, and the religious fervor he engendered united the country.

Islamism : Introduction To The Region

Islamic political activism, or Islamism, has been a rising force in the Arab world throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Religious revivalism (also known as fundamentalism, for its emphasis on returning to fundamentals of the Islamic life) has been a repeated issue in Islamic history, with this latest surge an outgrowth of age-old concerns about purity of faith mingled with modern problems, including poverty and high unemployment in much of the Arab world, tensions over the existence of Israel, and repressive regional governments. Islamism provides a political voice for many otherwise disenfranchised citizens of authoritarian regimes. Hamas, a violent and virulently anti-peace-with-Israel party with many supporters in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, has repeatedly rejected negotiations with Israel and thrown up obstacles to the peace talks via terror tactics against Israelis and Palestinian “informers” alike. The Iranian-backed Hizballah (Party of God) has long been a thorn in Israel’s side with attacks against Israel from its stronghold in Lebanon.

Egypt has been extremely hard-hit by Islamist violence. While long-extant groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood, continue to operate within the realm of acceptability, underground organizations such as the Islamic Group (followers of Sheikh Omar Abd ar-Rahman, whose professed aim is to overthrow the Egyptian government and who has been linked with the February 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center in New York) and Al-Jihad (the same organization that assassinated Sadat in 1981) have claimed responsibility for rising terrorism within Egypt. 180 people, including a handful of foreign tourists, died in attacks between January 1 and August 30 1993.
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The Gulf War and the Peace Process : Introduction To The Region

The Eastern Mediterranean was plunged into crisis with the August 2, 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Early on, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, with the support of Jordan and the PLO, suggested “linkage” as a way of solving the Gulf crisis; that is, he would withdraw from Kuwait when Israel withdrew from the West Bank, Gaza, and Golan, and Syria from Lebanon. This gesture and promises to liberate Palestine won Saddam the support of desperate Palestinians. Tensions were further inflamed in October 1990 when Israeli police killed 17 Palestinians and wounded almost 150 in a riot on the Temple Mount-the worst single day of violence in Israel since the 1967 war. Egypt challenged Saddam’s bid for leadership of the Arab world, with Mubarak joining the U.S.-led coalition along with Saudi Arabia, the Gulf states, and Syria. On January 18, 1991, immediately after the outbreak of war in the Gulf, the first of 39 Iraqi Scud missiles fell on Tel Aviv and Haifa. Israel, under pressure from the U.S. and fearful of an Arab-Israeli conflagration and of chaos in Jordan, did not retaliate, allowing the coalition to take on Iraq.

The war left King Hussein shaken, as Jordan struggled to absorb approximately 300,000 Palestinians and Jordanians no longer welcome in the Gulf countries. Across the river, Israel’s demographics were also in flux, as the country took in 450,000 Jews fleeing the former Soviet Union and Ethiopia.

The Israeli Invasion of Lebanon : Introduction To The Region

It soon became apparent that the June 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, called Operation Peace for Galilee by Defense Minister Ariel Sharon, had objectives of crushing the PLO that went beyond its originally stated goal of creating a buffer zone against shelling of the Galilee. Begin and Sharon had embarked on the first Israeli war waged by choice, and the first that faced widespread domestic opposition.

When the Israeli army, after surrounding the PLO in Beirut, began shelling the city at an enormous civilian cost, Israeli citizens joined in a world-wide chorus of condemnation. With the massacre of civilians at the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps by Lebanese Christian Phalangists operating in Israeli-controlled territory, Israel’s political position eroded even further. Under an agreement negotiated by the United States, most fighting ended in 1983. But Israel, worried about the Syrian presence and Shi’i harassment, did not fully withdraw until 1985, and continues to maintain a strip of southern Lebanese territory as a security zone.

The Camp David Accords and Israel-Egypt Peace : Introduction To The Region

In October 1977, Sadat declared that he would travel to the ends of the earth, even Jerusalem, to make peace. With a stunning public visit to Jerusalem the next month, Sadat convinced Israelis of his sincere interest in coexistence.

By September 1978, Begin and Sadat had forged a two-part agreement, the Camp David Accords, with the help of U.S. President Jimmy Carter. The first part of the accords stipulated that Palestinians living in the West Bank and Gaza would receive autonomy within five years. Under the second part, Israel agreed to give up the Sinai in exchange for peace and full diplomatic relations with Egypt. The second provision has held, but the autonomy guarantee remains a source of intense controversy.
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The Intifada : Introduction To The Region

In December 1987, as a result of mounting frustration with the political stalemate and the continuing occupation, a traffic accident sparked demonstrations which have continued, in some form, to this day. The Palestinian uprising was a tremendous shock to everyone, the PLO included (now relocated from Beirut to Tunis). At first, Israeli authorities viewed this intifada (shuddering, in Arabic) as a short-lived affair which would peter out much as earlier agitations did. But after Palestinians in the territories began establishing networks to coordinate their hitherto sporadic civil disobedience and strikes, the intifada came alive, and gained a shadowy leadership ali its own (though in contact with the PLO).

In the summer of 1988, King Hussein suddenly dropped his claims to the West Bank and ceased assisting in the administration of the territories, which Jordan had been doing since 1967. The constant appearance on TV screens throughout the world of Israeli soldiers violently suppressing rioters inspired increased criticism, but Hussein’s move left Israel and the United States without an adequate negotiating partner. Arafat seized the opportunity to secure a PLO role in negotiations by renouncing terrorism, recognizing Israel’s right to exist, and proposing an independent Palestinian state. Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir (Likud) presented his own proposal (actually concocted by then-Defense Minister Rabin). The Shamir plan insisted that neither the PLO nor PLO-sponsored candidates take part.

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The 1973 Yom Kippur War I October War : Introduction To The Region

The exhausted Nasser died suddenly of a heart attack in September 1970. Vice President Anwar as-Sadat assumed control and promptly began to dismantle Nasser’s legacy of state socialism and massive government involvement, starting the infitah, or economic opening, to promote foreign investment and revive the economy. Furthermore, anxious about the security of his own position, Sadat exposed Nasser’s extensive secret police network and released political prisoners, including members of the religious opposition which Nasser had ruthlessly suppressed.

Meanwhile, the War of Attrition along the Suez Canal was an increasingly heavy burden for Egypt to bear, and Sadat sought to reopen the lucrative canal and reclaim the desperately needed Sinai oil fields. Soviet advisors were assisting the Egyptian military but Sadat thought the USSR was not providing him with the sophisticated weapons he needed. In July 1972 he expelled all Soviet advisors; at the same time, seeing little hope in negotiations, he began making preparations to attack Israel.

The 1967 Six-Day War I June War : Introduction To The Region

From bases in Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon, Al-Fatah and the PLO initiated terrorist raids into Israel, and Israel retaliated with airstrikes. The cycle of raids and reprisals created tension on Israel’s northern border, including a spectacular Israel-Syria air battle in April 1967. When Syria’s hard-line government turned up the rhetoric, Nasser finally stepped in. Egypt concentrated its army in the Sinai and demanded the withdrawal of the UN buffer-zone troops stationed since 1957, which meekly bowed out. Israeli Prime Minister Ixvi Eshkol nervously warned that a blockade of the Strait of Tiran would be taken as an act of aggression. Yet Nasser, caught up in the bluff and escalation, initiated a blockade on May 22, 1967.

When Jordan, Iraq, and Syria began deploying troops along Israel’s borders, the latter was hard-pressed to counter. On June 5,1967, skeptical of its capacity to sustain a defense indefinitely and fearing imminent attack, Israel launched a preemptive strike on the force of some 250,000 troops arrayed against it. Eshkol warned Jordan not to get involved, but Hussein attacked anyway. One stunning Israeli blow eliminated the Egyptian Air Force and after six days, the Arab states were forced to accept a humiliating cease-fire. From Egypt, Israel had taken all of the Sinai and the Gaza Strip, from Syria the strategic Golan Heights, and from Jordan the West Bank and Arab East Jerusalem-which was promptly annexed. Nasser resigned in disgrace, but a swell of public sympathy prompted him to reclaim his post.

The Suez War : Introduction To The Region

Egypt, weakened by struggles between Wafdist nationalists and the monarchy, was in a shambles after its 1948 loss to Israel. In 1952, following a bloody confrontation between British soldiers and Egyptian police officers, a group of young army officers led by the charismatic Col. Gamal Abd an-Nasser bloodlessly seized power from the late King Fouad’s corrupt son, Farouk. Calling themselves the “Free Officers,” Nasser’s cabinet instituted major economic reforms and foreign policy changes, siding with the Non-Aligned Movement in the Cold War. Drawing from the writings of countless Arab nationalists, Nasser espoused a highly emotional brand of pan-Ara-bism hoping to unify the Arabic-speaking masses under one state powerful enough to resist imperial encroachments and to reconquer Palestine. When Nasser forced Britain to withdraw in 1954, many of the conservative Arab leaders dependent on foreign assistance became alarmed by Nasser’s growing popularity.

The United States and other foreign powers, which had undertaken extensive development of the oil fields of Arabia, feared that their arrangements with local monarchs would collapse if Nasserism spread. Nasser, alarmed by a British-led alignment of conservative Mideast states (the Baghdad Pact), had begun buying Soviet arms via Czechoslovakia in defiance of a 1950 Western-sponsored arms control deal. In 1956, the United States clumsily attempted to end Nasser’s adventurism by withdrawing an offer to finance the Aswan High Dam. Rather than yield to the snub, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal to use its revenues for the dam.
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The War of Israeli Independence : Introduction To The Region

Several British and United Nations commissions suggested partitioning Palestine as Britain, frustrated by the intercommunal strife, gave up on its mandate. On November 29, 1947, the United Nations to partition the land into an Arab state and a Jewish state, and to set aside Jerusalem as an international city. The Jews accepted the plan; the Arabs rejected it. A bloody guerilla war broke out between Jews and Palestinian Arabs. The British, although attacked sporadically by both sides, remained for the most part on the sidelines.

On May 14,1948, the British mandate over Palestine ended and David Ben-Gurion declared the independence of the State of Israel. The next day, a Liberation Army of Syrian, Iraqi, Lebanese, Saudi, Egyptian, and Jordanian troops marched into Israel from the north, west, and south. Few observers gave the new state much chance for success, but the results became clear with the signing of armistices in the spring of 1949- Israel had secured both its U.N.-allotted territory and some Palestinian Arab-designated land in the north and in the West Bank. Other land intended for the Arab state was secured by Egypt (the Gaza Strip) and Jordan (the West Bank and half of Jerusalem). Thousands of Palestinian refugees crowded into camps in the West Bank, Gaza, and the bordering Arab states-a defeat bitterly remembered by Palestinians as An-Nakba, the catastrophe.
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The Rise of Zionism and the World Wars : Introduction To The Region

By the late 19th century, Jews had begun to doubt the improvements in their status promised by the liberal notions of the Enlightenment. In Czarist Russia, Jews were victims of increasingly violent government-sponsored pogroms. In Germany and Austria, anti-Semites had banded into powerful political parties. In the wake of the Dreyfus affair (where mobs cried “A. mart lesjuifs” in the streets of Paris following the trial, for spying, of ajewish military officer), even France, the role model for liberal revolutions, seemed an unwelcoming option.

One observer at the trial was Austrian journalist Theodore Herzl who, in 1896, published a small pamphlet entitled The Jewish State, calling for the establishment of a Jewish homeland as the only effective answer to Jewish persecution. This had been proposed earlier in such works as Leo Ptnsker’s Auto-Emancipation, but never before had a secular, pro-Enlightenment Jew like Herzl so despaired of the possibility of Jews ever being accepted as equals or even tolerated by other Europeans. Impelled by the grave situation of Russian Jewry, Herzl was willing to consider a number of sites in the drive to establish a Jewish state. However, as the options fsuch as Uganda and South America) for settlement were broached, it became : apparent that only Palestine had the emotional lure to prompt Jews to immigrate by ; the hundreds of thousands.

The Rise of Zionism and the World Wars : Introduction To The Region

By the late 19th century, Jews had begun to doubt the improvements in their status promised by the liberal notions of the Enlightenment. In Czarist Russia, Jews were victims of increasingly violent government-sponsored pogroms. In Germany and Austria, anti-Semites had banded into powerful political parties. In the wake of the Dreyfus affair (where mobs cried “A. mart lesjuifs” in the streets of Paris following the trial, for spying, of ajewish military officer), even France, the role model for liberal revolutions, seemed an unwelcoming option.

One observer at the trial was Austrian journalist Theodore Herzl who, in 1896, published a small pamphlet entitled The Jewish State, calling for the establishment of a Jewish homeland as the only effective answer to Jewish persecution. This had been proposed earlier in such works as Leo Ptnsker’s Auto-Emancipation, but never before had a secular, pro-Enlightenment Jew like Herzl so despaired of the possibility of Jews ever being accepted as equals or even tolerated by other Europeans. Impelled by the grave situation of Russian Jewry, Herzl was willing to consider a number of sites in the drive to establish a Jewish state. However, as the options fsuch as Uganda and South America) for settlement were broached, it became : apparent that only Palestine had the emotional lure to prompt Jews to immigrate by ; the hundreds of thousands.

The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the Rise of Egyptian Nationalism : Introduction To The Region

When the gates of Vienna closed on Ottoman armies in 1683. Turkey began worrying about the fate of its increasingly decrepit empire. Napoleon’s 1798 invasion of Egypt, however, shocked even the grumpiest pessimist. While Europe had grown more and more powerful economically and militarily, the Ottoman Empire had languished. The animated ports of Aleppo, Palestine, and Egypt had once provided the sole access to the East; now, they were relegated to insignificance as Portuguese sailors ftnagled their way around the Horn of Africa. Egypt’s economy-for two centuries buttressed by the Arabian and Yemeni coffee trade-collapsed when European investors cultivated their own, cheaper coffee in the Java islands and, turning the tables, sold it to Cairene merchants. At the same time, the European discovery of alternative silk sources hurt Palestine’s economy and Spanish silver from the New World was inundating the world, paralyzing agrarian economies. The once-formidable Ottoman Empire became “the sick man of Europe.”

The French occupation of Egypt, although a failure, marked the first intrusion of modern European colonialism into the Middle East. Upon the withdrawal of the French army in 1801, resurgent Mamluks sought to regain former prerogatives. A Circassian slave named Muhammad ibn Ali fortified the power structure, crushing his rivals in a bloody, invitation-only dinner party’ at the Citadel in Cairo. Muhammad Ali built upon the administrative apparatus left by the French, modernized the civil service, created a regular tax system, and attempted to introduce land reform aimed at the vast feudal estates of his enemies. To stock his army, in lieu of buying more potentially rebellions slaves, Muhammad Ali conscripted peasants. Those who managed to avoid the army labored under watch to build a new, massive irrigation network indispensable to the modernization of Egyptian agriculture.

Ancient Palestine : Introduction To The Region

The Bible begins the recorded history of the area with the story of Abraham, the first of the Patriarchs. The semi-nomadic Aramaean tribes’ migration to Palestine almost four thousand years ago has been linked by archeologists with the biblical tradition of Abraham’s (Avraham in Hebrew, Ibrahim in Arabic) journey from Chaldea. In the 13th or 14th century BC, however, famine forced some of the Semitic groups in Palestine to flee to Egypt where, according to the Bible, the Pharaoh bound them into servitude. Meticulous Egyptian records (a rarity today) attest to the existence of a foreign group called the Habiri (or Khapiru), a name thought possibly to be the ancestor of the word “Hebrew.” But, as told by the Torah, the combination of Moses’ (Moshe in Hebrew, Musa in Arabic) initiative and several plagues ultimately convinced an Egyptian pharaoh (quite possibly Ramses II) to allow the Hebrews to leave Egypt.

The Bible relates how, after an arduous journey across the Sinai Peninsula, the Hebrews returned to Canaan, much of which was controlled by a group called the Philistines. Following Moses’ death, Joshua led the newly constituted twelve tribes of Israel across the Jordan River and conquered Jericho. The battle against the Philistines continued after Joshua’s death. At the end of the 1 lth century BC, the Israelite tribes united tinder King Saul. The kingdom reached its peak of power during the reign of Saul’s successor, David, and that of his son, Solomon. The construction of the Temple of Jerusalem is considered perhaps Solomon’s most formidable feat, yet the cost of the Temple and other civil projects proved a heavy burden for his subjects. After Solomon’s death in 922, unrest spread and the empire split into the Kingdom of Israel in the north and the smaller Kingdom of Judah (Judea) in the south.

Islam and Empires : Introduction To The Region

After the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 AD (see “Islam” under Religion, below), Bedouin armies, inspired by Islam and the prospect of substantial spoils, ventured outside their traditional strongholds in Central Arabia and, in a series of protracted battles between 639 and 642, conquered Egypt. Tired of the Greek Orthodox Church’s rigidity, many Egyptians resented Byzantine rule and appreciated, if not Islam itself, the arriving armies’ relative tolerance.

The death of Muhammad gave rise to political confusion, as no successor had been designated. Amid vigorous debate as to whether the successor had to be a blood relative, Abu Bakr, confidante of Muhammad and father of his wife A’isha, was chosen as the first successor (khalifa, or caliph). Ruling from 632-34, he was followed by Umar (63444), Uthman (644-56), and finally AH (65661), all based in Medina.

History Ancient Egypt : Introduction To The Region

Conquering Lower (northern) Egypt and then uniting it with Upper (southern, where the headwaters of the Nile are) Egypt, King Menes, the semi-mythical first pharaoh, founded one of the most powerful and lasting civilizations of the ancient world. From the capital, Memphis, probably built by Menes around 2900 BC, successive pharaohs oversaw the construction of complicated irrigation systems and grandiose monuments. Less than 100 years after the first step pyramid was built at Saqqara, the pharaohs of the Old Kingdom (approx. 2665-2180 BQ were organizing skilled builders and hundreds of thousands of laborers to build the classic, smooth-sided pyramids. At a time when even China had scarcely emerged from the Stone Age, Egyptians had invented writing and papyrus, recorded the regnal years of pharaohs, and were crafting extraordinarily creative ivory and metal art. Many view this era as the apex of ancient Egyptian civilization.

The absolute authority of the pharaoh began to wane and the Old Kingdom drew to an end as petty kings and provincial administrators gained power. A cycle of unification and disintegration persisted until the demise of pharaonic rule. After a century of rule by a succession of feuding monarchs, Mentuhotep II allied with the princes of Thebes to establish the Middle Kingdom (approx. 2050-1786 BC).

Between Egypt and Jordan : Travel In The Region

Traveling between Egypt and Jordan should pose few problems. You can obtain visas in the respective capital cities; Jordan requires a letter of introduction from your embassy or consulate. (See Cairo and Amman Practical Information for embassy listings.) Instead of flying between the two countries (an expensive option), consider taking a ferry from Nuweiba in the Sinai to Aqaba, Jordan (see Nuweiba and Aqaba sections for details).

On board the ferry to Aqaba, a Jordanian visa (valid for either 1 month or 2 weeks) and an entry stamp will be entered into your passport. While it’s best to come to Nuweiba with a Jordanian visa already in your passport, you can obtain one en route. Travelers from the U.S., Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Britain should have no difficulty obtaining this visa. Travelers with evidence of a visit to Israel in their passports might be allowed to board the ferry, but will not be allowed to disembark. Passports with an Egyptian Taba entry stamp have been known to pass through, but don’t stake your trip on it. Clever sorts who have two passports must be sure to get the Nuweiba exit stamp in the passport that has no sign of Israel in it. If you are heading from Jordan to Egypt, a two-week Sinai-only visa will be issued on the spot in Nuweiba; if you plan to travel beyond the Sinai, say to Cairo, you need to apply in advance for a regular Egyptian tourist visa; this can be done in Aqaba.

From Jordan To The West Bank : Travel In The Region

This is comparatively hassle-free if you came into Jordan from Egypt, Syria, or elsewhere, but highly problematic if you entered Jordan from the West Bank. Regardless, you’ll need a West Bank permit issued by the Ministry of the Interior in Amman (see Amman Practical Information). The process takes three working days and two revenue stamps, available at post offices or sometimes from a kiosk near the ministry. Preferred religions on the application are Christianity and Islam, hut the most difficult application blank will be “port of entry to Jordan.” Applicants listing Queen Alia Internationa! Airport, Aqaba, or Ramtha (on the Syrian border) have experienced the least problems.

If you came from the West Bank and indicate the King Hussein/Allenby Bridge as point of entry, however, you are implying that you consider the West Bank to be Israeli territory and will be summarily denied a permit. Write Jerusalem or try leaving the question blank and explaining that you never entered Jordan since the bridge is not an international border. Those trying a West Bank-Jordan-West Bank itinerary may be denied a permit solely because of an officer’s crotchety mood; try again if you are denied the first time. Start out as early as possible; the Jordanian authorities will not issue passes past lpm.
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From The West Bonk To Jordan : Travel In The Region

Proceed approximately as follows. First, purchase a pocketful of Jordanian dinars ahead of time, as the border exchange facilities are unreliable. Then travel to Jericho where you get off when you see the large mosque in the city center. Take a richt at the mosque to the square where the service taxis wait. The only taxis licensed to go all the way to the bridge (past the first security checkpoint) are those lined up under the big blue “Jericho Municipality” sign. Others will drop you off at an earlier checkpoint where you’ll have to wait for the rare taxi with an empty seat.

The King Hussein/Ailenby Bridge across the Jordan River is open only in the morning; arrive as early as possible to ensure that you get through. It is also closed on Saturdays and Jewish holidays. The bridge is occasionally closed for political events; consular officers, taxi drivers, and bus drivers all keep abreast of the latest political developments. There is an Israeli GTIO in the tourists’ terminal (tel. (02) 94 10 38), which is open with the same schedule as the bridge itself. For most foreigners (with the possible exception of Arabs and Jews from any country), the searches are mild, the officers respectful, and the waiting rooms air-conditioned. The U.S. Department of State warns that “American citizens with Arab surnames may encounter delays or obstacles” in bringing items from electronics to toothpaste across the bridge. Currently there is a departure tax of approximately NIS16. After your luggage has been inspected, you’ll have to wait for one of the approved buses. You cannot drive a vehicle across the bridge.
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Between Jordan and the West Bank : Travel In The Region

Jordan does not recognize Israel as a sovereign nation. In order to enter Jordan, you must bear a passport free of any evidence that you’ve ever set foot in Israel.

Travel between the two regions is not impossible, just tricky. As far as the Jordanian authorities are concerned, when you cross the King Hussein/Allenby Bridge from the West Bank, you are coming from occupied Palestine, since Israel does not exist and thus cannot have a border. Therefore, Jordanian authorities will probably allow you to enter, as long as your passport does not have an Israeli stamp or other incriminating evidence, as described above.

From Egypt to Israel : Travel In The Region

The Israeli station also issues a one-month visa for travelers coming into Israel from Egypt (free). If you are not American and plan to visit the Sinai and return to Israel, find out ahead of time if you’ll be charged a reentry fee. (For example, Yugoslavians returning to Israel after a 1-day jaunt are slapped with a NIS135 fee.) Call the Israeli passport control at 37 21 04 (mornings only) to check the ever-changing regulations and find out if you’ll need to secure a multiple-entry visa to prevent annoying fines. (Don’t listen to anyone else’s sage advice about re-entry fines.)

From Israel to Egypt : Travel In The Region

Travelers can obtain a two-week Sinai-only visa on the spot at the Israeli border at Taba. This visa limits travel to the Gulf of Aqaba coast as far south as Sharm ash-Sheikh (but not Ras Muhammad) and to St. Catherine’s monastery and Mt. Sinai (but not sites in the vicinity of St. Catherine’s). Unlike ordinary one-month Egyptian visas, the Sinai-only visa has no grace period; overextend your stay and you’ll pay a hefty fine. For longer visits to the Sinai or for journeys to Cairo and points west, an Egyptian visa is easily scored at the Egyptian consulate in Eilat or Tel Aviv. In Eilat, show up at 9am and they’ll have it for you at lpm (see Eilat Practical Information). For in formation on transportation into and around the Sinai, see Sinai.

Between Israel and Egypt : Travel In The Region

You must pay an exit tax each time you leave Israel. If you don’t already have an Egyptian visa, you can get one at a diplomatic mission; processing takes just a few hours but the lines can get uncomfortably long, especially during Ramadan (see Tel Aviv and Eilat Practical Information and Sinai). You can’t get anything other than a Sinai-only visa at the border. Several tour bus companies operate out of Tel Aviv, Jerusalem, and Cairo, offering transport, several days in a shared room at a tourist-class hotel in Cairo, and an open-ended return ticket.

Egged Tours: 15 Frischmann St., Tel Aviv 63578 ((el. (03) 527 1223/4, fax 527 2020). Sinai only (St. Catherines and Mt. Sinai). 1 day US$52, 2 days US$115. Galilee Tours: U.S.: 310 1st Ave., Needham, MA 02194 (tel. (617) 449-8996). Israel: 42 Ben-Yehuda St., Tel Aviv (tel (03) 546 6622. fax 546-6343), 3 Hillel St., Jerusalem (tel. (02) 258 866 or 25 28 06, fax 23 13 03). Also offices in Tiberias and Eilat. Several tours to Cairo and the Nile Valley.

Border Crossings : Travel In The Region

Border crossing policies in the Middle East fluctuate with political tides, so be sure to check with travel agents, tourist offices, and your home government for the most up-to-date information. AU Arab nations except Egypt refuse to admit travelers with evidence of a visit to Israel in tiieir passports. Israeli passport officials will give you a detachable visa stamp upon request, allowing you to eliminate evidence of your having been in Israei. However, any other indications of a visit to Israel, such as an Egyptian entry stamp from Rafiah or Taba, or any other visa issued in Israel, will keep you out of Jordan, Syria, and the Sudan. The Egyptians are not as accommodating as the Israelis in providing detachable border stamps, but it’s worth asking.

In 1992 the U.S. State Department announced that it would no longer issue second passports valid only for travel to Israel. The State Department will help Americans obtain travel visas by issuing a limited-duration (2 yrs.) second passport. In order to obtain a second passport, you must observe normal application procedures and include a written statement explaining why you require a second passport in order to facilitate obtaining travel visas for Israel and Arab countries. For more information, contact the Washington Passport Agency (see Useful Addresses, above).

By Boat : Travel In The Region

Several ferry lines sail from Europe to Israel. Fares vary considerably, depending mainly on your tolerance for discomfort. Outdoor deck seats may cost as little as US$5O-6O for a three-day trip, but beware that clean bathrooms are hard to come by. More comfortable are the three- or four-berth inside cabins that many companies offer at reduced student and youth fares. The following service Europe to Haifa:

Mano Passenger Lines, Ltd.: Israel: 97 Ben-Yehuda St., Tel Aviv (tel. 522 4611). Greece: 1 Charilaou Trikoupi St., Piraeus (tel. 41 83 777). Boats between Haifa and Piraeus leave Sun. and Tues. at 7:30pm.
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By Bus and Train : Travel In The Region

Buses and trains can bring you from Northern Europe to ports along the Mediterranean where you can board a ferry to Israel or Egypt. Magic Bus, 20 Fifellinon, Syntagma, Athens, Greece (tel. (01) 323 7471/4) has cheap air, rail, bus, and boat tickets to and from Europe, North America, Africa, and the East. If you’re under 26, BIJ tickets can provide discounts of up to 50% on regular second-class rail fares on international train runs. Available at most travel agencies in Europe but not yet in the U.S.; contact Wasteels, 7041 Grand National Dr., #207, Orlando, FL 32819 (tel. (407) 351-2537) for more information. Always inquire about other student discounts. You can also get by bus from Europe to Jordan via Syria and Turkey.

Getting There By Plane : Travel In The Region

Off-season travelers will enjoy lower fares and a greater availability of inexpensive seats. Peak season rates begin about May and run until about September. Actual dates differ depending on your airline and destination-peak seasons in Israel, for instance, correspond to religious holidays as well as to summer high season. If you arrange your travel dates carefully, you can travel in summer and still save with shoulder- or low-season fares. Remember that an indirect flight via Brussels or Athens could cost considerably less than a direct flight to Tel Aviv or Cairo.

Find a good travel agent, ideally one who specializes in Middle East travel. Commissions are smaller on budget flights, so some agents may not have incentive to search for the cheapest fare. The Sunday New York Times lists bargain fares, and CIEE or other student travel organizations might offer special student deals.

Charter flights offer consistently economical airfares. Charters may be booked until die last minute, though most summer flights fill up several months in advance. Later in the season companies often have many empty seats and either offer special prices or cancel flights. Charters are more of a bargain in high season, because APEX.

Travel Etiquette : Planning Your Trip

Standards of dress and behavior are much more conservative in the Arab world than in the West. Jordan tends to be the most traditional, although the rise of Islamic fundamentalism in Egypt is moving that country too in a more conservative direction. Israel, except in some Arab and Jewish-Orthodox regions, is as liberal in its dress code as any Western country. Consult the introductions to individual countries and cities for more specific information about proper etiquette.

hi holy places, modest dress is the norm. Never wear shorts or sleeveless shins; women are better off with long skirts than pants. Do not visit sanctuaries during services unless you are worshipping, in which case you are always welcome. Remove your shoes before entering a mosque. Men should cover their heads in a synagogue.

Photography is often forbidden in holy places, archeological sites, and museums. If you are unsure, ask. Photography is absolutely forbidden at all military installations, including border crossings, railroad stations, bridges, ports, and airfields. Take a picture and you risk having your film confiscated and being held for questioning.

Vegetarian & Kosher Travelers : Planning Your Trip

The Middle East is a vegetarian’s delight. Many of the cheapest foods are vegetables, grains, and fruit. Street food is mostly vegetarian as well. Check under Once There: Food for each country for more comprehensive gastronomic information.

For a list of synagogues, kosher restaurants, and institutions in over 80 countries, procure ihejewish Travel Guide, published by Jewish Chronicle Publications, London EC4A 1JT, England. Available in the U.S. from Sepher-Hermon Press, 1265 46th St., Brooklyn, NY 11219; tel. (718) 972-9010) for US$11.95. In the U.K., order from ( Jewish Chronicle Publications, 25 Furnival St., London EC4A England. Tbefewish Traveler’s Resource Guide is available from Feldheim Publishers, 200 Airport Executive Park, Spring Valley, NY 10977.

Bisexual, Gay, & Lesbian Travelers : Planning Your Trip

While open expressions of gay affection in Israel are uncommon, Israel, and particularly Tel Aviv, is certainly a world apart from any of its Arab neighbors in terms of the public and legal status of gays, lesbians, and bisexuals, and the availability of gathering places and support organizations for these groups. Alexandria in Egypt and Aqaba in Jordan may be the most tolerant cities in Egypt and Jordan, but an openly gay lifestyle is generally taboo throughout the Arab world, and gay and lesbian assistance in Egypt and Jordan is nonexistent.

The primary organization for gay and lesbian concerns in Israel is the Society for the Protection of Personal Rights, P.O. Box 37604, Tel Aviv 61375 (tel. (03) 29 36 81 or 20 43 27). The society publishes an English-language newsletter, Israel Update, and offers “Israel Hospitality,” bed and breakfast stays for gay and lesbian travelers (US$ 12 per night). Community center, library, and coffee shop is located at 28 Nahmani St., Tel Aviv. The society’s gay and lesbian switchboard, the White Line (HaKav haLavan; tel. (03) 62 56 29), operates Sun. and Tues.-Thurs. 7:30-11:30pm).

Travelers with Disabilities : Planning Your Trip

Egypt, Jordan, and particularly Israel have in recent years developed facilities to respond to the needs of travelers with disabilities. Double-check information from tourist offices to ensure that facilities are appropriately equipped. Access to the World: A Travel Guide for the Handicapped provides information on tours and organizations and is available from Facts on File, Inc., 460 Park Ave. S., New York, NY 10016 (tel. (800) 322-8755) for US$ 16.95. The following can also provide info:

Directions Unlimited, 720 North Bedford Rd., Bedford Hills. NY 10507 (tel. (800) 533-5343 or (914) 241-1700). Arranging individual and group vacations, tours and cruises for those with disabilities. Organizes tours for individuals, not groups.

ETAMS Tours, 13 Kasr an-Nil St., 3rd fir. #8, Cairo (tel. (02) 75 47 21; fax 574 1491). Dr. Samy Bishara organizes individual and group tours to Cairo and Luxor. Evergreen Travel Service, 4114 198th St. SW, Suite #13, Lynnwood, WA 98036 (tel. (800) 435-2288 or (206) 776-1184). Wheelchair-accessible tours and individual travel worldwide, including Israel and Egypt. Other services include tours for the blind, the deaf and tours for those wanting a slower itinerary’.

Travelers with Children : Planning Your Trip

Lonely Planet Publications, Embarcadero West, 112 Linden St., Oakland, CA 94607 (tet, (800) 275-8555); also P.O. Box 617, Hawthorn, Victoria 3122, Australia. Publishes Maureen Wheeler’s Travel with Children (US$10.95).

Wilderness Press, 2440 Bancroft Way, Berkeley, CA 94704 (tel. (510) 843-8080). Publishes Backpacking with Babies and Small Children (US$9-95).

Women and Travel : Planning Your Trip

Trust your instincts: if you’d feel better somewhere else, move on. Consider staying with religious organizations that offer rooms for women only or in hostels with single rooms which lock from the inside. A whistle or an airhorn on your keychain is always useful. Consider enrolling in a Model Mugging course to learn how to be more in tune with your surroundings and less vulnerable to potential harassment. Offices exist in 14 U.S. states, Quebec, and Zurich.

Israeli standards of dress are liberal even by Western standards, and women will experience far less verbal harassment there than in Arab countries. In all areas, however, women should be sensitive to cultural tradition. Egypt has lately grown more conservative than Jordan, the West Bank, and Arab parts of Israel. Women should not travel alone in Jordan (comments, whistles, and crude animal noises are virtually guaranteed in any case) or the West Bank.

West Bank : Planning Your Trip

At times during the intifada, all four West Bank universities-Birzeit, Bethlehem, Hebron, and An-Najah-were declared security threats, as they were often the venues for demonstrations and violence, and were closed by military authorities.

Today, most West Bank schools have resumed classes. If political events have not prompted the reclosing of the schools at the time of your visit, check the programs for foreign students at Birzeit University north of Ramallah. The six-week international summer program offers courses in Arabic, Palestinian society, the Arab-Israeli conflict, and Palestinian women writers (July 12-Aug. 22; US$300 for language courses, US$200 for each of the others.

Housing US$200). A new year-round Palestine and Arabic program for international students, combining study of modern and colloquial Arabic with courses in the social sciences and the arts, was scheduled to start in October 1993 (US$500 for modem Arabic, US$270 for all other courses). For both programs, contact the Continuing Education Department, Birzeit University, P.O. Box 14, Birzeit, West Bank, via Israel (td. (02) 95 62 29 or 95 67 69)- Birzeit also sponsors two-week international work camps with Palestinian students during August and September (US$70); contact the Office of the Community Work Program at the above address.
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Study in jordan : Planning Your Trip

Two Jordanian universities are open to foreign students. The University of Jordan (Al-Jubaiha, Amman) has a more liberal atmosphere than the conservative Yarmouk University in Irbid (although you shouldn’t plan on wearing shorts at either). Students interested in Islamic culture, however, may enjoy the more rapid pace of study at Yarmouk. The University of Jordan has a special foreign students program and summer programs wliich are popular for those seeking colloquial and classical Arabic language instructions. Both schools also guarantee dormitory housing for women. A Jordanian embassy, consulate, or information bureau can provide further information on either school (see Essentials: Useful Addresses).

Work and Archeological Digs : Planning Your Trip

It’s hard for foreigners ro find jobs in Jordan. Formal positions must be arranged before arrival, and you must name your employer to obtain a work visa. Work permits can be secured from the Ministry of Labor. Residence permits are also required for stays of more than three months.

Some apprenticeships are available for science students through the IAESTE. (See General Resources, above.) This exchange program is open to undergraduate and graduate students. The internship lasts two-18 months and provides housing, transportation, and stipend. Volunteers for archeotogical digs are ordinarily in demand; the recently discovered Byzantine church at Petra is but one example of the vibrancy of archeological activities in Jordan. Contact the archeology resources listed above for information on digs

Study in Egypt : Planning Your Trip

The American University in Cairo (AUC) offers semester, year abroad, summer, intensive Arabic, and degree programs (bachelor’s and master’s). Instruction is in English. Popular topics include Arabic language, Egyptology, and Middle East studies. There is limited dormitory space. Tuition and fees for the 1993-94 year are US$4060 per semester; the summer session costs US$2015. U.S. citizens in AUC degree or certificate programs may apply for Stafford student loans. AUC is conveniently located in the center of modern Cairo, just off Tahrir Sq., at 113 Kasr al-Aini St. (tel. 354 2964/5/6/7/8/9). For more information, write to Office of Admissions, AUC, 866 UN Plaza, #LG517, New York, NY 10017-1889 (tel. (212) 421-6320).

Four other Egyptian universities-Cairo, Ein Shams, Alexandria, and the famous Al-Azhar-have programs for foreign students for one or two semesters. These studies are transferable for credit at most universities. For more information, contact the Egyptian Cultural and Educational Bureau, 1303 New Hampshire Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20036 (tel. (202) 296-3888) or AmidEast in the U.S. (1100 17th St., NW, Washington, DC, 200364601; tel. (202) 785-0022, fax 822-6563) or in Cairo (6 Kamel ash-Shinawy St., 2nd fir., Garden City; tel. (02) 354 1300 or 355 3170, fax 355 2946). AmidEast can provide information related to educational concerns, doesn’t generally organize programs for individuals.
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Work and Volunteer : Planning Your Trip

Check a university career library. If you know Arabic you’ll have a distinct advantage trying to secure work with a foreign company here. Ask the American Chamber of Commerce in Cairo at the Marriott Hotel (tel. 340 8888, ext. 1541) for addresses and phone numbers of its member companies. Consult the Institute of International Education, 809 UN Plaza, New York, NY 10017-3580 (fax (212) 984-5452), for information on teaching English in Egypt. IAESTE sponsors training programs for undergraduate and graduate students in Egypt (see General Resources, above). Application deadline is Dec. 10. Work permits can be obtained through any Egyptian consulate, or in Egypt from the Ministry of the Interior.

The Higher Council for Youth and Sport: in Egypt (Foreign Relations Administration) runs programs where students of different nationalities spend two to four weeks working together on agricultural or sociological projects. Contact the Council at Kit Kat Sq., Cairo (tel. (02) 346 1701) or the Egyptian Embassy or EGAPT.

Mekhinot : Planning Your Trip

Mekhinot Students who do not have the required proficiency in Hebrew but wish to enter a mil undergraduate degree program usually first enroll in mekhina (preparation) programs, providing a year of intensive Hebrew instruction and a chance to develop study plans. Mekbinot arc offered by the universities and other schools of post-secondary education. Note, mekhina participation does not guarantee acceptance to a university; students must still take entrance examinations. At Hebrew University, Technion, and Practical Engineering Colleges, the mekbina opens in September or October. The program for Practical Engineers in Be’er Sheva begins in August and February- Mekhinot begin in August at all other schools.

Universities Israel : Planning Your Trip

Universities Israel has six institutions of higher learning, with universities in Tel Aviv, Jerusalem, Haifa, and Be’er Sheva, and technical/scientific institutes in Haifa and Rehovot. Programs for foreign students range in length from one summer to four years. Year-abroad programs usually begin with a four to nine-week ulpan to learn Hebrew before the semester begins in October, after the Jewish holidays. The courses for these programs are usually in English; if you know Hebrew, you have the option of taking regular university courses. Israeli universities also offer full-time degree programs on both the undergraduate and graduate levels, usually preceded by a mekhina (see Mekhinot below). Admission to undergraduate bachelor programs ordinarily requires proficiency in Hebrew and at least one year of college.

Tel Aviv University offers single-semester and full-year programs for overseas students; the application deadline is May 1 for fall semester or year programs, November 1 for the spring semester, and April 15 for summer. The fall and full-year program is preceded by an ulpan. For more information write to the Office of Academic Affairs, American Friends of Tel Aviv University, 360 Lexington Are,, 3rd fir., New York, NY 10017 (tel. (212) 687-5651).

Study : Planning Your Trip

Ulpanim An ulpan is a short-term study program for foreign students that provides intensive Hebrew and Jewish culture instruction. There are about 100 ulpanim throughout Israel. Kibbutz Ulpanim offer 24 hrs. of classroom instruction per week in return for work (see Work above). Studies emphasize conversation and simple reading in Hebrew, and include seminars on current events. Kibbutz Ulpanim run for three to six months. Participants must be between 17 and 35, single or without children, and in good physical shape. Many American universities recognize Kibbutz Ulpanim for foreign language and elective credits. For more information contact the Kibbutz Aliya Desk. See address above under Kibbutzim.

The Ulpan Akiva Natanya runs a series of three- to 20-week study programs in Hebrew and Arabic. The programs include four or five Hebrew study hours per day and cultural activities in the evening, and are open to both Jews and non-Jews from ages 18-80. Costs vary according to duration of program. Write to Ulpan Akiva Natanya, P.O. Box 6086, Natanya 42160 (tel. (09) 35 23 12/3). Other programs are sponsored by Beit ha’Noar ha’lvri, HaRav Herzog 105, Jerusalem 92622 (tel. (02) 78 94 41), Beit ha’Am, Rehov Bezalel 11, Jerusalem (tel. (02) 25 41 56), and Mo’a-don ha’Oleh, Rehov Alkafai 9, Jerusalem (tel. (02) 63 37 18). For information contact the World Zionist Organization Ulpan Center, 4 E. 34th St., New York, NY 10016 (tel. (212) 5324176) or the Jerusalem municipality, Dept. of Culture, Hanha-latbalasbon unit in Beit ha’Am, 11 Bezalel St., Jerusalem 94591 (tel. (02) 22 41 56).

Living Experiences : Planning Your Trip

Living Experiences A blend of work, study, and life in general, Otzma incorporates kibbutz and moshav life, youth villages, and Hebrew study (tel. (212) 475-5000). In the Isaac Mayer Wise-Inside Israel Program, you live with an Israeli family as well as on a kibbutz, and learn Hebrew to boot. Contact Paul Reichenback, Union of American Hebrew Congregations, 838 Fifth Ave., New York, NY 10021 (tel. (212) 249-O100 ext. 546). Livnot U’Lehibanot: To Build and Be Built is a three-month intensive program of study and restoration in the old city of Tzfat (110 E. 59th St., 3rd fir., New York, NY 10022 (tel. (212) 752-2390). Other programs that may be of interest are the Peace Corps-style Sherut La’Am (tel. (212) 339-6002), and the NAAM Internships (tel. (212) 339-6060), both affiliated with the American Zionist Youth Foundation.

Volunteer : Planning Your Trip

Volunteer The Volunteers for Israel program places participants in non-combat support jobs in the Israeli military. The 23-day program involves menial work, such as washing dishes, polishing boots, or packing equipment. You will wear army fatigues, army boots, and sleep in army barracks, but don’t expect to carry an Uzi or keep the uniform afterwards. The program offers reduced airfare on El Al or Tower Air, providing you fulfill your commitment. The round-trip ticket is good for 180 days and can be extended for an additional charge. There may be a special fere for students under 26 with a letter from a university registrar proving enrollment. Write to Volunteers for Israel, 330 W. 42nd St., #1818, New York, NTY 10036 (tel. (212) 643-4848). Application must include a US$65 registration fee.

Shatil, a project of the New Israel Fund, places volunteers from abroad with organizations working in such areas as civil and human rights, Jewish-Arab coexistence, the status of women, and religious tolerance. Contact them at 9 Yad haRutzim St. or P.O. Box 53395, Jerusalem 91533 (tel. (02) 72 35 97, fax 73 51 49), or at the New Israel Fund, 111 W. 40th St., #2600, New York, NY 10018 (tel. (212) 302-0086).

Archeological : Planning Your Trip

Archeological Digs Working on an archeological dig is yet another earthy way to earn your keep. The work consists largely of digging pits, shoveling shards, and hauling baskets of dirt for eight to 10 hours per day in searing heat; work begins at 5am. Don’t let dreams of discovering ancient treasures prevent a realistic assessment of your physical stamina and seriousness of interest.

Every February the Israel Antiquities Authority, P.O. Box 586, Jerusalem 91004 (tel. (02) 29 26 07, fax 29 26 28), compiles a list of excavations that are open to volunteers in the summer (must be at least 17 and in excellent shape). (Also consult the archeology listings in General Resources, above.)

Apply directly to the dig leader. Volunteers usually must be able to work a minimum of two weeks. Be sure to indicate any previous experience or knowledge of archeology, geology, or anthropology in your application, although none is typically required. Many excavations also charge an application fee. Volunteers are usually responsible for their own travel arrangements to and from Israel, and most excavations charge for food and accommodations. Accommodations range from camping at the site to a nearby hostel, hotel, or kibbutz. The Department of Antiquities recommends that volunteers come fully insured, as most excavations provide only minimal insurance.
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Moshavim : Planning Your Trip

Moshavim Moshavim (plural of moshav) provide a somewhat different work experience from kibbutzim. Moshavim are agricultural communities in which most farms and homes are privately owned and operated. You will receive free lodging either with a family on the moshav or in a house shared with other workers. Your appointed family will also provide meals or a food allowance. Laundry services, toiletries, and aerogrammes will be supplied as well. In return, you work a six-day week, minimum eight hours per day. Unlike kibbutz work, workers are paid, usually about US$250 per month. Applicants must be ages 18-35 and physically fit.

Write the organizations listed above for kibbutzim Once in Israel, contact the Moshavim Movement, 19 Leonardo da Vinci St., Tel Aviv (tel. (03) 695 8473).

Kibbutzim : Planning Your Trip

Kibbutzim Israel’s 250 kibbutzim (plural of kibbutz)-communal settlements whose members divide work and profits equally-are always eager for volunteers. Kibbutzim vary greatly in size, number of volunteers, and ideological basis. Volunteers generally work six six-hour days per week with several days off per month, and may receive a small monthly allowance in addition to various other benefits. If you’re already in Israel, visit a kibbutz and talk to volunteers before you commit yourself. Otherwise try to get a written promise of placement on a specific kibbutz before arriving in Israel. Kibbutz life can be seductive in its routine, and many volunteers find themselves staying longer than they had planned.

For those who wish to combine work with study, the Kibbutz Ulpanim Program, available on more than 60 kibbutzim, provides classroom instruction in exchange for work (see Study below). Project Oren runs four- to five-month programs combining work at one of several kibbutzim, a Hebrew ulpan, and “weekly enrichment activities.” Contact them through the Kibbutz Program Center, below.
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Work and Apprenticeships : Planning Your Trip

Unemployment in Israel is high, greatly limiting work opportunities, and foreigners also have to compete with the new immigrants from the Soviet Union who are struggling to secure their place in Israel’s erratic economy. American or European companies with branches in Israel are a possible source of employment. If you obtain paid work, your employer must secure a work visa for you through the Ministry of the Interior. Another option is volunteer work in exchange for room and board.

Israel belongs to the IAESTE (see General Resources above), which operates exchange programs lasting between two and 18 months for undergraduate and graduate students. The Jewish Agency also offers six-month internships. Write to the Center for Ulpanim and Counseling for Young Adults (UCYA), 12 Kaplan St., Tel Aviv (tel. (03)25 83 11).

Israel : Planning Your Trip

The American Zionist Youth Foundation (AZYF) is a clearinghouse for many programs, offering short-term tours and long-term university study or work/volunteer/ archeologicai dig programs. University programs offer classes in English or Hebrew. Fully accredited programs in Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Haifa, and Be’er Sheva. Contact them at the University Student Department/Israel Action Center, 110 E. 59th St., 3rd fir., New York, NY 10022 (tel. (800) 27-ISRAEL (274-7723) or (212) 339-6941).

General Resources : Planning Your Trip

The number of resources for students seeking work-abroad opportunities has ballooned recently. Two starting points are the Directory of Overseas Summer fobs, a listing of over 50,000 volunteer and paid openings worldwide, and Work Your Way Around the World (US$ 15.95 and US$ 17.95, respectively, both available from Peterson’s Guides, 202 Carnegie Center, P.O. Box 2123, Princeton, NJ 08543-2123; tel. (800) 338-3282). Looking for Employment in Foreign Countries (US$l6.5O from World Trade Academy Press, Inc., 50 E. 42nd St., New York, NY 10017; tel. (212) 6974999) gives information on just that. International Jobs: Where They Are, How to Get Them features job-hunting strategies (US$14.95 from Addison-Wesley, Jacob Way, Reading, MA 01867; tel. (800) 447-2226).

Archeological Institute of America, 675 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, MA 02215 (tel. (617) 353-9361). Publishes the annual Arcbeological Fieldwork Opportunities Bulletin. Lists field projects in the Middle East and throughout the world.

Terrorism : Planning Your Trip

Terrorism The ferusalem Post runs a filler advertisement that reads, “Suspicion saves! Beware of suspicious objects.” A suspicious object-in Hebrew, hefetz fyash-oua–s reason enough for the authorities to evacuate the area; if you see an orderly and somewhat annoyed mob going one way and muttering about a hefetz hashoud, join it. Whether in Israel, Egypt, Jordan, or the West Bank, if you see an unattended package or bag, contact the police or army immediately; it could be a bomb. Terrorists often use extremely sophisticated bombs, so that even a wallet, roll of bills, or loaf of bread may be an explosive device. Call the police or inform anyone in military dress. If the police start clearing the area, follow their instructions.

In Israel, there has been a noticeable increase in terrorism associated with the turmoil in the occupied territories, but attacks against Westerners remain rare. In the West Bank, Israeli-looking tourists may be targeted; visitors should make sure to shed any trace of Israeli affiliation before going in there. In Egypt, there is a real threat to Western tourists since Islamic militants have begun targeting tourists in a campaign against the government. Contrary to popular perceptions, however, few tourists have been affected, for the most part members of package tours. (Between July 1992 and July 1993, 36 foreigners were injured and four killed in nine attacks, ranging from a bomb in a Cairo coffeehouse to an ambush of a tour bus in Luxor).
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Alcohol & Drugs : Planning Your Trip

Alcohol & Drugs Despite observant Muslims’ complaints, alcohol is legal for all ages in Egypt and Jordan, but may be hard to come by. Israel’s drinking age is 18. Never buy, possess, or use drugs in any country. Israeli, Egyptian, and Jordanian authorities all regard drug possession as an extremely serious offense. If you’re lucky, you’ll only be